Reading Passage
1
Hacked off
Internet security, or
rather the lack of it, is the bane of today’s computer user. Computer hackers
write malicious computer programs (or malware) that infect vulnerable computers
and modify the way they operate. Typically, these programs are downloaded from
the internet inadvertently with a single click of the mouse. The consequences
are detrimental to the user, ranging from a minor nuisance – for example,
slowing the computer’s speed – to a major financial loss for an individual or
company, when login and password details are accessed and fraud ensues.
Examples of malware include viruses, worms, trojans (Trojan horses), spyware,
keystroke logging, scareware and dishonest adware.
A virus can be released
when a user opens an e-mail and downloads an attachment. The text portion of
the e-mail cannot carry any malware but the attachment may contain a virus, for
example in a macro (a short program) embedded in a worksheet document, such as
Excel. Viruses can replicate
and if they spread to the
host computer’s boot sector files they can leave the user with a ‘blue-screen
of death’. In this circumstance, the blue-screen is accompanied by a message
that starts ‘A problem has been detected and Windows has been shut down to
prevent damage to your computer’. Whilst malware cannot physically damage the
computer’s hard drive the information on the boot sector has been destroyed and
the computer is unable to function. In a worst case scenario the hard disk has
to be wiped clean by reformatting, before
the operating system can be reinstalled, in which case every program and file will be lost. Unlike a virus, a worm can infect a computer
without the user downloading an attachment, so it can
spread through a network of computers at tremendous speed. The ability
of worms to replicate in this way means that
they can infect every contact in the user’s e-mail address book and potentially
every e-mail contact in each recipient’s
computer. Instant messaging programs and social networking sites are similarly at risk. A main feature of a worm is
that it slows the computer down by consuming memory
or hard disk space so that the computer eventually locks up.
The word trojan derives from the Trojan
Horse of Greek mythology that tricked the Trojans into allowing Greek soldiers
into the city of Troy
Scareware is a form of extortion where
a victim is informed that the computer is infected with a virus and, for a fee,
is offered a solution to fix the problem. The user is tricked into clicking an
‘OK’ button and buys software unnecessarily because there is usually no virus.
In one scam, a scareware pop-up informs the victim that the computer’s registry
contains critical errors when the problems are actually minor or even
non-existent. Persuaded by the pop-up advert, the victim buys the ‘registry
cleaner’, which may not work or could even damage the computer’s registry.
There are of course legitimate registry cleaners that will boost your
computer’s speed. A genuine registry cleaner will normally be endorsed by a
reputable company or recommended in a PC magazine. Adware pop-up adverts are
similar to scareware but are merely a nuisance rather than malware (unless
dishonest), though they can still download programs that track your shopping
habits and slow your computer down. The adverts pop up automatically when the
user opens the internet browser and can become irritating because they conceal information
on the opened up page. One answer is to turn on the Internet Explorer’s pop-up
blocker under the privacy tab because this will block most automatic pop-ups.
More effectively, a user can purchase an all-in-one security suite to block any
malware. Security software automatically blocks and deletes any malicious
programs for a more secure web experience. Normally, the software will update
itself every day as long as the computer is switched on.
Questions 1 to 7
Do the
following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
Write:
TRUE if the
statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the
statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there
is no information on this.
1. Malware is usually downloaded from the internet by mistake.
2. An e-mail text can carry a virus.
3. A virus can result in the loss of every program and file.
4. Java applets can contain malicious code.
5. A Trojan disguises itself as useful software.
6. Keystroke logging is always fraudulent.
7. Scareware is not harmful to the user.
Questions 8 to 12
Classify the following as typical of
a virus
a worm
a virus and a worm.
8. requires user input to infect a computer.
9. can duplicate itself.
10. reduces the computer’s speed.
11. do not damage the hard drive.
12. can be removed by security
software.
Reading Passage 2
Highlands and Islands
A Off the west coast of Scotland ,
in the Atlantic Ocean, lies a chain of islands known as the Outer
Hebrides or Western Isles. The main inhabited islands are Lewis,
Harris, North Uist and South Uist, Benbecula, Berneray and Barra. The Isle of
Lewis is the most northern and largest of the Western Isles, and to its south,
a small strip of land connects it to the Isle of Harris, making the two islands
one land mass. To the south west of Harris are the two Uists with Benbecula
wedged in between them. These three islands are connected by bridges and
causeways. The small island
of Berneray
B Lewis is low-lying and covered in a smooth blanket of
peatland. Harris is an island of contrasts. It displays a rocky coast to the
east, yet white, sandy beaches to the west, backed by fertile green grassland
(‘machair’), pockmarked with freshwater pools (lochans). North Uist is covered
with peatland and lochans, whilst South Uist is mountainous to the east with
machair and sandy beaches to the west. Benbecula is relatively flat and
combines machair, peatland and lochans, with sandy beaches and deeply indented
sea lochs. Like Harris, Benbecula and Barra exhibit a rocky coastland to the
east and low-lying machair to the west with sandy beaches similar to those seen
on Berneray, which is a flat isle, except for a few hills, and sand dunes.
C Although part of Scotland Scotland
D There are approximately 27,000 people in the Western Isles
and one-third of these live in and around the capital town of Stornoway Western Islands ’ travel. Stornoway is best
known for its world-famous Harris Tweed industry, which developed from a Murray Outer Hebrides is permitted to
carry the Harris Tweed logo. Other areas of economic activity include fishing,
tourism, transport and renewable energy. Almost two-thirds of the population live
on a croft, which is a particular type of smallholding peculiar to the Highlands and Islands of Scotland. Crofters are tenants of
a small piece of agricultural land, typically a few hectares, that usually
includes a dwelling which the crofter either owns or rents from the landowner.
The land must be used for the purposes of crofting, which can be described as
small-scale mixed farming. Crofting activities include grazing sheep (lamb) and
to lesser extent cattle (beef), growing potatoes, vegetables and fruit, keeping
chickens, and cutting peat for burning on the house fire. Crofting can be
likened to subsistence living, that is to say, living off what you can rear,
grow and make, with anything spare going to market or shared with the
community. Some people see crofting as a means of escaping the ‘rat race’ and
getting closer to nature, though this romanticized view is naive. It is
difficult to survive from crofting alone and most crofters have to supplement
their incomes with a part-time job. Crofting as a way of life has been in
decline. However, this trend may be about to reverse, led by consumer demand
for high quality produce, grown sustainably with the least environmental
impact.
Questions 13 to 19
Do the following statements agree with
the information given in Reading Passage?
Write:
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.
13. The Isles of Lewis and Harris are
joined together.
14. There are two islands called
Berneray in the sea around Harris.
15. The sea around Benbecula is deep.
16. On the island of South Uist
17. In the Western Isles most road signs
are bilingual.
18. Approximately 9,000 people live in
or near Stornoway.
19. Most crofters earn their living
entirely from crofting.
Questions 20 to 22
The passage described the position of the
islands in relation to each other. There are four unnamed
islands, A, B, C and D on the map below.
Complete the table below.TABLE
Name of Island
Label A, B, C or D
Lewis 20............
Eriskay 21............
Berneray 22............
Map of the Western
Isles
Questions 23 to 26
Reading Passage 11 has four paragraphs, A to D.
Choose the correct heading for the paragraphs A, B, C and D from the list of
headings below.
List of headings
i) Life in the Western Isles
ii) Language and culture
iii) Environment
iv) Landscape
v) Population and economic activity
vi) Sustainability
vii) Location
viii) History and heritage
ix) Travel and tourism
23. Paragraph A
24. Paragraph B
25. Paragraph C
26. Paragraph D
Reading Passage 3
Dummy pills
There is an ongoing debate
about the merits and the ethics of using placebos, sometimes called ‘sugar pills’.
The ‘placebo effect’ is well documented though not completely understood. It
refers to the apparent benefits, both psychological and physiological, of
taking a medication or receiving a treatment that you expect will improve your health,
when in fact the tablet contains no active ingredients and the treatment has
never been proven. Any benefit that arises from a placebo originates solely in
the mind of the person taking it. The therapeutic effect can be either real and
measurable or perceived and imagined.
The placebo effect is a
headache for drug manufactures. ‘Guinea pig’ patients, that is to say, those who
volunteer for a new treatment, may show positive health gains from the placebo
effect that masks the response to the treatment. This has led to the
introduction of double-blind trials – experiments where neither the patient nor
the healthcare professional observing the patient knows whether a placebo has
been used or not. So, for example, in a ‘randomized control trial’ (RCT), patients
are selected at random and half the patients are given the new medication and
half are given a placebo tablet that looks just the same. The observer is also
‘blind’ to the treatment to avoid bias. If the observer knows which patients
are receiving the ‘real’ treatment they may be tempted to look harder for
greater health improvements in these people in comparison with those on the
placebo.
Whilst the case for
placebos in drug trials appears to be justified, there are ethical issues to consider
when using placebos. In particular, the need to discontinue placebos in
clinical trials in favour of ‘real’ medication that is found to work, and
whether a placebo should ever be prescribed in place of a real treatment
without the patient ever knowing. In the first circumstance, it would be unethical
to deny patients a new and effective treatment in a clinical trial and also unethical
to stop patients from taking their existing tablets so that they can enter a
trial. These two ethical perspectives are easy to understand. What is perhaps
less clear is the distinction between a placebo that may have therapeutic value
and a ‘quack cure’ which makes claims without any supporting evidence. Quackery was at its height at the end of the
nineteenth century, when so-called men of medicine peddled fake remedies
claiming that all manner of diseases and afflictions could be cured. The modern
equivalent of these quack cures are ‘complementary and alternative medicine’ (CAM ) which are unable to substantiate the claims they
make. There are dozens of these treatments, though the bestknown are perhaps
acupuncture, homeopathy, osteopathy and reflexology. There is anecdotal evidence
from patients that these treatments are effective but no scientific basis to
support the evidence. Whilst recipients of complementary and alternative
medicine (CAM ) can find the treatment to be
therapeutic, it is not possible to distinguish these benefits from the placebo
effect. Consequently it is important not to turn to alternative therapies too
early but to adhere to modern scientific treatments. Complementary therapies
are by definition intended to be used alongside traditional medicine as an adjunct treatment to obtain, at the very
least, a placebo effect. With either complementary or alternative therapies the
patient may notice an improvement in their health and link it with the therapy,
when in fact it is the psychological benefit derived from a bit of pampering in
a relaxing environment that has led to feelings of improvement, or it could be
nature taking its course.
Patients enter into a clinical trial in
the full knowledge that they have a 50/50 chance of receiving the new drug or
the placebo. An ethical dilemma arises when a placebo is considered as a
treatment in its own right; for example, in patients whose problems appear to
be ‘all in the mind’. Whilst a placebo is by definition harmless and the
‘placebo effect’ is normally therapeutic, the practice is ethically dubious
because the patient is being deceived into believing that the treatment is authentic.
The person prescribing the placebo may
hold the view that the treatment can be justified as long as it leads to an
improvement in the patient’s health. However, benevolent efforts of this type
are based on a deception that could, if it came to light, jeopardize the
relationship between the physician and the patient. It is a small step between
prescribing a placebo and believing that the physician always
knows best, thereby denying patients
the right to judge for themselves what is best for their own bodies. Whilst it
is entirely proper for healthcare professionals to act at all times in
patients’ best interests, honesty is usually the best policy where medical
treatments are concerned, in which case dummy pills have no place in modern
medicine outside of clinical trials. On the other hand, complementary medicine,
whilst lacking scientific foundations, should not be considered unethical if it
is able to demonstrate therapeutic benefits, even if only a placebo effect, as
long as patients are not given false hopes nor hold unrealistic expectations,
and are aware that the treatment remains unproven.
Questions 27 to 30
Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D for the questions based on Reading Passage.
27. The passage ‘Dummy pills’ is mainly concerned with
a. real and imagined treatments.
b. the use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM ).
c. the value and morality of placebo use.
d. alternatives to traditional medicine.
28. In the passage, the author states that the action of a
placebo
a. is entirely understood.
b. is based on the patient’s expectations of success.
c. is based on the active ingredients in the tablet.
d. is entirely psychological.
29. The author suggests that in volunteers, the placebo
effect
a. may hide the effect of the drug being tested.
b. makes positive health gains a certainty.
c. is random response to a new treatment.
d. causes bias in double-blind experiments.
30. The author states that it is morally wrong for patients
to use placebos
a. in clinical drug trials.
b. if they do not know that they are taking them.
c. without any supporting evidence.
d. instead of their current treatment.
Questions 31 to 36
Do the following statements agree with the information given
in Reading Passage?
Write:
TRUE if the
statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the
statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there
is no information on this.
31. The author states that quack cures
can be likened to complementary and alternative medicine (CAM ).
32. There are personal accounts of
complementary and alternative medicine being successful.
33. Complementary medicine should be
used separately from traditional medicine.
34. Health improvements following
complementary or alternative therapies may not have been caused by the
therapies.
35. People turn to complementary and
alternative therapies too early.
36. There can be risks associated with
alternative therapies.
Questions 37 to 40
Complete the summary using the list of
words, A to K, below.
Patients in a clinical trial are fully
aware that they have only a 50% chance of receiving the new drug.
Even so, prescribing a placebo as a
treatment presents the physician with a moral 37................................. . Even if the treatment
works, the patient has been tricked into believing that the placebo was 38.........................................and
if this were found out it could 39...............................................the
physician–patient relationship. Furthermore, patients should not be denied the
right to make 40................................about their own treatment.
A genuine B deception C belief D questions
E correct F harm G improve H dilemma
I story J
choices K
ethical
Academic
reading
Hacked off
1 TRUE
2 FALSE
3 TRUE
4 NOT GIVEN
5 TRUE
6 FALSE
7 FALSE
8 A
9 C
10 B
11 C
12 C
Reading Passage
Highlands
and Islands
13 TRUE
14 FALSE
15 NOT
GIVEN
16 TRUE
17 FALSE
18 TRUE
19 FALSE
20 A
21 D
22 B
23 A
vii) Location
24 B
iv) Landscape
25 C
ii) Language and culture
26 D v) Population and economic
activity
Dummy
pills
27 C
28 B
29 A
30 D
31 TRUE
32 TRUE
33 FALSE
34 TRUE
35 NOT
GIVEN
36 NOT
GIVEN
37 H
38 A
39 F
40 J
